Pre-production theory

I put this blog together to show the process of how I planned and made a short film.  I considered all the steps needed to get the film to its final stage and have put them together in this blog.

Step one

The type of production that I have created is a short film. This affected my work load as I had to prepare the script and script breakdown. A script is where you prepare and write or adapt a story to be filmed.  It tells the story through the lines that the actor is going to be saying in the film and it also gives directions  to tell what the actor is going to be doing- stage directions, use of props and presentation to the audience. The remaining items  are more generic and used for other productions, such as, you have a risk assessment in TV,film and video;  budget for film, TV and video and a call sheet for film, TV and video.

I have included a copy of the original script I planned and wrote for my short film (see below).

Storyboard-Below is an image of my storyboard for the film. A storyboard is where you draw pictures of the actor and how the actor is going to be acting and also it will be explaining what the cameramen will be doing in the film e.g. angles and shots.












I have also uploaded a copy of  my 'Script Breakdown'- A script breakdown is where you look at the script and you look at the lines that you want to highlight that are relevant to the script. You highlight the lines you want to keep and cross out the items that you don't want anymore, and also you calculate how long it will take to film the scene.




















Here is my filming Budget-A budget is where you identify the costs for the completion of the film. - such as actors' wages, hire or purchase of technical equipment, hire room/filming location etc. The list below shows my budget and how much the equipment cost me.  I had an initial budget of £1500 - ie the amount of money made available for the film - funding - and by breaking down the costs I have kept within my budget.













It is important to consider health and safety in the workplace and making a film is no different.  A Risk Assessment is used to identify potential hazards when making the film.  Within the risk assessment you put in place certain changes to help reduce the certainty of these hazards, reducing high risk to low risk.



























The images below make up my 'Call Sheet'-A call sheet is where you have all the times and dates and locations for the actors and the crew members to turn up for the production day.  It also identifies which specific people are needed  to turn up at the rehearsals for particular scenes. It is also where the director makes a list of the shots for the cameramen to complete.



































Finally I have included 'Contracts and Clearances'- A 'Contract' is a legal document where you agree to work for a particular production company/film company for the period of the 'production' for agreed terms and conditions.  It may also be a hire contract for equipment or locations etc. Clearances are  where you ask someone permission if you wanted to do filming at a particular location or wanted to borrow some equipment from the media department.















Step two - Time

Time management is very important when planning and producing a film.  If the filming overruns this has implications on the budget, making the film more expensive.  Below I have included a simple timetable which I intended to show how I have broken down each task within the film and the time I have allotted for completion.



This is the schedule showing when I'm going to get the work done and which week it will be completed.






I have explained below how I have thought about time management for each particular aspect.

Script-I planned to complete the script in 2 days.  Using facilities at College to help me manage this more effectively.

Script Breakdown-I'll be using the time to highlight the lines that are needed for a particular scene.  For example I used 'colour referencing' to identify key lines for the actor needs to read - blue; the cameraman has the colour red etc. The script breakdown wouldn't take long to complete as I just need to highlight the lines for the actor to say, stage directions and I will also need to highlight the lines for the cameraman on what angles he will need to be filming at and whether the cameraman will be zooming in or out.  Time allotted was 20 mins- 30 mins to complete and check.

Call Sheet-I'll be writing the date and the time of the day that the actor and the cameraman need to turn up for the rehearsal of the film and will be be passing on the message to them if they can make it to shooting the film. The call sheet will take me two days to complete as I will need to tell the cast what time we're meeting up, the equipment that they need to bring and telling them when the filming should be completed.

Filming -  I planned for the filming to take me one day.  One day to do the shooting of the film as we are just at one location shooting the film and using one actor, one camera and one cameraman.

The timetable helps identify the deadline in which I need to complete the film.

Step three - Resources

Script and script breakdown - The script will identify what props will be used in the scene and how the actor will use it.  The script could also show where the back stage crew need to  place - 'stage left/right' etc so that it will be in the correct place for the actor to use.  The script also identifies where the cameraman will have the camera equipment.


Risk Assessment-The risk assessment identifies how the prop/resource should be handled to ensure that it is being used appropriately and not is not dangerous for cast and crew to handle.  The risk assessment identifies whether it is a high or low risk item and the measures need to ensure risk is minimised.

Call Sheet- In the call sheet it will say what equipment and resources I'll be using in the film and also how long I'll be borrowing them,  saying which props I will need for the film. I also listed the technical items  I will be using - camera, tripod and H4 zoom audio, and the props for the actor that he'll be using are either a book or a newspaper.






I have not included an inventory - ie a simple list of resources and props.  This is something I would recommend using next time to quickly identify what is needed for the production.  This is something I would use if I was working on a film with a team of others to ensure that my needs are communicated clearly.

As well as an inventory an itinerary of locations would also be an effective way of managing the film more efficiently.  However for this particular film I was only filming in one location so felt I didn't need it.

Step four - Budget

By spending time to put together a film budget I can see  how much I intendto spend overall.A spreadsheet to show the breakdown of costs with an overall total cost - including actors wages and hire cost of equipment for the production. This shows how much funding needs to be raised for the film to be completed.

Script-Budget for the script-the script  costs -ink and paper to produce.

Script Breakdown-Minimal stationary costs - ie pens and time management.

Budget-I'll be adding up all the costs and the money that I've spent  on  the film that I am producing for my assignment. The money that I have identified will be spent on props, equipment hire, actors' wages.











Step five - Communications
The script is the most efficient way to communicate effectively with all people involved in the film production.
By including   details on the script - such as  stage directions, staging, direction etc, actors and crew will know where they are supposed to be and what is excpected.  Call sheets are used to ensure people know when and where they are meant to be.  Costume and lighting details, would also be included on the script, as well as the storyboard.The script it will have the lines for the actor to say in the film and also what the actor will be doing in the film. The director can use the script to direct the actor and cameraman on what they are meant to do in the film, as well as identify props and what the actor will be wearing and what their appearance is like - ie make-up.




















Storyboard-In the storyboard it will communicate to the actor and the cast members. In the storyboard will show how the actor will be acting and also what the actor will be saying. It will also communicate with camera people. For example what shots they'll be doing, and what the angles are going to be. Same as before it will show in the story board the stage directions where the actor will be standing or sitting etc.










Call Sheet-To communicate people from the call sheet it will say who will need to be there and what equipment they will need there and also it will talk about breaks and times starting and finishing for the film and it will also say where they will be filming at which location, and it will also say what time the cast need to be there for the filming.







































Step six - Contracts and Clearances

Contracts and Clearances-I will need to have permission to film at college's location.I will also need to have a contract from the actor and the cast crew, so they are willing to work with me on this film that I will be producing for my assignment. The cast will also need to sign a form where they are aware of potential hazards and agree with the stated risk assessment.  They are also signing to agree to using some of their own property for the film and are aware of the potential damages that may occur during filming.

On a professional film a producer would need to be aware of other issues - such as actors contracts and the involvement of EQUITY - the actors' union, as well as technical crew unions - eg electrical.  Also a producer would need to be aware of copyright - whether the script is subject to the Copyright Act of 1956 and whether royalties need to be paid to writers.  This would also affect budgets.

As I am the scriptwriter I did not need to look at copywrite and below are my contracts drawn up with my actor and cameraman.

Editing theory

The development of video editing

The purposes of editing

The conventions of editing

In this blog I will be explaining the different types of editing techniques that are used in films.  The types of editing that I will be explaining are 'Continuity editing'; 180 degree rule, 'dissolve editing', 'jump cuts', shot reverse shot and 'cutting to the soundtrack' editing.  The second part of the blog looks at the history of famous inventors and directors of film-editing techniques, eg Sergai Eisenstein.

Continunity
'Continunity' is the predominant style/form of film editing and video editing in the post-production process of filmmaking of  narrative films and television programmes. The purpose of continunity editing  is to 'smooth over' the  discontinunty/disjointedness of the editing process and to establish a logical 'follow-through' between shots.

In most films, this 'follow-through' is achieved by cutting to continuity, which emphasises smooth transition of time and space. However, some films use cutting to continuity in a more complex 'classical cutting technique', one which also tries to show a continuity of shots. The 'montage technique' relies on symbolic association of ideas between shots rather than association of a simple physical action for its continuity. 

Continuity editing can be divided into two categories: temporal continuity and spatial continuity.  Temporal continuity gives the viewer a smooth transition into an action/scene; spatial continuity relies on a group or montage of shots to follow-on, eg a shot of someone throwing a ball can be edited to show two different views.

A famous director who uses this film technique in his films is a Russian director called Sergai Eisenstein in the early days of film-making in the twentieth century.

Jump cuts
 Another form of editing is 'jump cut'.  A jump cut is where there is an abrupt transition from one scene to the next scene. For example if you wanted to make a 'jump cut' you could go from head to the shoulders of the persons body. 'A jump cut' is a cut in film editing in which two sequential shots of the same subject are taken from camera positions that vary only slightly.This type of edit gives the effect of jumping forwards in time.Continuity editing uses a guideline called the "30 degree rule" to avoid jump cuts. The 30 degree rule advises that for consecutive shots to appear "seamless," the camera position must vary by at least 30 degrees from its previous position.  If the camera position changes less than 30 degrees, the difference between the two shots will not be noticeable enough, and the viewer will experience the edit as a jump in the position of the subject that is jarring, and draws attention to itself. 

A jump cut can be created through the editing together of two shots filmed non-continuously, they can also be created by removing a middle section of one continuously filmed shot which is also known as a temporal jump cut.











The 180 degree rule
When filming, the 180-degree rule is a basic guideline about the on-screen spatial relationship between a character and another character or object within a scene. An imaginary line called the axis connects the characters, and by keeping the camera on one side of this axis for every shot in the scene, the first character is always frame right of the second character, who is then always frame left of the first. The camera passing over the axis is called jumping the line or crossing the line; breaking the 180-degree rule by shooting on all sides is known as shooting in the round.The object that is being filmed must always remain in the centre, while the camera must always face towards the object.

There are 6 different types of filming techniques that are used in films when using the 180 degree rule. They are:

Usage

• The 180-degree rule enables the audience to 'visually connect' with unseen movement happening around and behind the immediate subject. This is important in the narration of battle scenes.

Pitfalls

• The 'imaginary line' helps viewers to visually move themselves with the position and direction of action in a scene. If a shot following an earlier shot in a sequence is made on the opposite side of the 180-degree line, then it is called a "reverse cut." Reverse cuts can confuse the viewer by presenting an opposing viewpoint of the action in a scene and consequently altering the perspective of the action and the viewpoint of the original shot.

Solutions and Prevention

• Directors can use  a variety of ways to avoid confusion linked to 'crossing the line' caused by actions or situations in a scene that would mean breaking the 180-degree line.  The can either alter the movement in a scene, or set up the cameras on one side of the scene so that all the shots reflect the view from that side of the 180-degree line.

Camera Arch move

• One way to allow for 'crossing the line' is to have several shots with the camera arching from one side of the line to the other during the scene. That shot can be used to support the audience so that we are looking at the scene from another angle. In the case of movement, if a character is seen walking into frame from behind on the left side walking towards a building corner on the right, as they walk around the corner of the building, the camera can catch them coming towards the camera on the other side of the building entering the frame from the left side and then walk straight at the camera and then exit the left side of the frame.

Buffer shot

• To minimize the "jolt" between shots in a sequence on either sides of the 180-degree line, one can shoot a buffer shot along the 180-degree line separating each side. This lets the viewer visually 'understand' the change in viewpoint shown in the sequence.

Dissolves
A dissolve is a gradual transition from one image to another. The technique is where the scene fades-out which is also called fade to black and it also fades in and is used to describe a transition to and from a blank image.This is in contrast to a 'cut' where there is no such transition. A dissolve overlaps two shots for the duration of the effect, usually at the end of one scene and the beginning of the next, but may be used in montage sequences also. Generally, but not always, the use of a dissolve is held to indicate that a period of time has passed between the two scenes

Shot-reverse-shot
A shot reverse shot, or in other words a shot or countershot, is a film technique where one character is shown to look at another character who is often off-screen, and then the other character is shown looking back at the first character. Here is the link to the video clip of 
'Spiderman', the film where William Dafoe is talking to himself in the mirror:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h0xiCIMIwLY. Since the characters are shown facing in opposite directions, the viewer assumes that they are looking at each other.

Shot reverse shot is a feature of the "classical" Hollywood style of continuity editing, which deemphasizes transitions between shots so that the viewer perceives one continuous action that develops linearly, chronologically, and logically. It is an example of an eyeline match.

Cutting to a sound-track
Cutting to the soundtrack is where your editing links to the soundtrack, when the pace of the cuts are dictated by the speed/tempo of the song/music.

Cutting to soundtrack is the technique where each cut is influenced by the style of music heard in the background. So if the scene is a sad one, perhaps at a funeral, a slow song will be heard. If there is a car chase scene, the music will be fast and upbeat.

The second part of this blog looks at directors who developed these particular techniques in their filming/editing.

Kuleshov (1910s-20s - Russia)
Kuleshov developed a technique known as Kuleshov Technique(Soviet montage' in film editing where he used a montage of shots to help the audience gain more meaning from two sequencing shots than 1 single shot.  Kuleshov edited together a short film in which he shot the expressionless face of an actor alternating with various other shots e.g. a plate of soup,a girl in a coffin and a woman on a divan. This made the audience believe  that the expression on the actor's face was different each time he appeared, depending on whether he was looking at the plate of soup, the girl in a coffin, or the woman on the divan.  In fact the facial shot was always the same but linking to images was able to  show the face expressions of hunger, grief or desire, respectively. Kuleshov used the experiment to indicate the usefulness and effectiveness of film editing.

Eisenstein
Eisenstein was pioneer in the use of montage, a specific use of film editing. Eisenstein developed what he called methods of montage:

• Metric
• Rhythmic
• Tonal
• Overtonal
• intellectual

When Eisenstein directed a film, he mostly concentrated on the structural issues such as camera angles, crowd movements and  'montage'. Eisenstein used filming of  public articles of self-criticism and commitments to reform his cinematic visions but came under increasing pressure to conform to the increasingly specific doctrines of 'socialist realism'/Communism in Russia in the 1920s/30s.

Lumiere Brothers
The Lumiere brothers were called Louise and Auguste. Auguste came up with an invention in 1894 called the cinematographe. This device was smaller and lighter than the kinetograph. This cinmeatographe photographed and projected a film of a speed of 16 frames per second. This device was much slower than Thomas Edison's device. His device did 48 frames per second, this meant that the film was less noisy to operate and used less film to use.

















George Melies
George Melies was a french illusionist and a famous filmmaker for leading many technical and narrative developments in the earliest days of a cinema.  Accidently George Melies discovered the substitution stop trick in 1896. He was one of the first filmmakers to use  multiple exposures, time-lapse photography, 'dissolves' and hand painted colour.The films that he did were 'a trip to the moon' in 1902 and the 'Impossible voyage' in 1904.















Edwin Porter
Edwin porter starting doing motion picture work in 1896. Edwin porter was a film pioneer, he is famous for being a producer, director, studio manager and was a cinematographer. Edwin Porter created over 250 films.  His most famous film is 'Jack and the Beanstalk' in 1902.He developed an interest in electricity at a young age and shared a patent at the age of 21 for a lamp regulator.

D.W. Griffiths
D.W. Griffiths was a famous director at the start of the 20th Century.  He was mostly remembered by directing the film of 'The birth of our Nation'. Griffiths began making short films in 1908 and he released his first ever feature film 'Judith of Bethulia' in 1913. The film 'Birth of our Nation' made the  pioneering use of advanced camera and narrative techniques and it's immense popularity set the stage for the dominance of the feature-length film in the United States. Ever since the film was released, the film has been highly controversial for it's negative depiction of African Americans and the Ku Klux Klan.

Filmed at a cost of $110,000, it returned millions of dollars in profits, making it, perhaps, the most profitable film of all time, although a full account of costs has never been made.

Conclusion
What I have tried to explain in this blog is that I have understood the different types of editing techniques that have been used in films and I have discovered how famous film directors  have pioneered and developed these editing techniques in the early 20th century.